Analyzing the origins and consequences of dampness in building structures: A case study at mile 50 in the New Juaben Metropolitan Assembly

Dampness is a continuing cause of distress to building occupants. The effects of dampness have become a major problem when it invades into building. It is also a possible source of or a contributor to illness and it encourages deterioration in the fabric of the building. With an emphasis on existing buildings and some coverage of the design of new buildings, the objectives of this research are to investigate the causes of dampness during and after the construction of buildings, identify the effects of dampness on the building and its occupants and offer recommendations on the above mention issues. The level of dampness causes and effects differ across geographic areas, climates, and building types. A descriptive survey technique was used to gather information about rising damp in the municipality which includes questionnaires, interviews, and personal observations. According to the findings, the condition resulting in rising dampness to the base of walls was the lack of incorporation of damp-proof courses during construction. Also, the problem of rising dampness reoccurs shortly after treatment because of the application of the wrong treatment method as well as the absence of damp treatment specialists. The effects of rising dampness led to damage to plaster work, crumbling of masonry, peeling of paintwork, efflorescence on wall surfaces, uncomfortable, unattractive rooms, and the cost of painting a room or building yearly. From the findings, it is recommended that damp proof courses (DPCs) should be placed through the full thickness of the base of walls below floor level to form an impervious layer that keeps rising damp out of the buildings.


Introduction
The term dampness has been used to define the variety of moisture problems in buildings, including high relative humidity, condensation, water ponding, and other signs of excess moisture or microbial growth.While studies report that dampness is prevalent in residential housing in a wide array of climates, attempts to understand its scale and significance are hampered by the fact that there is no generally accepted definition of dampness or of what constitutes a dampness problem.There is no single cause of excessive dampness and the primary risk factors differ across climates, geographical areas, and building types.However, the prevalence of dampness problems appears to increase as buildings age and deteriorate.
When the materials in a building become sufficiently damp to cause material damage or visible mold growth, we often say that the building has a dampness problem or we characterize the building as a damp building.The dampness and mold growth may occur on visible interior surfaces in the building, including within basements or crawl spaces, or be hidden inside walls and air conditioning systems.Dampness is one of the most common problems in buildings.
According to [1] and [2], dampness can become an enemy when it invades our interior space, when it persists, it spreads and damages our domestic fittings, finishes, and furnishings, it encourages the growth of molds that threaten our health, and when it stimulates the spread of fungus and decay in the structure of our houses.
Unwanted water or moisture getting access into buildings in different ways caused a lot of distress to building occupants and the building itself.The bases of buildings (superstructure) are usually affected by dampness which results in deterioration in the fabric of buildings.Personal observation in the municipality shows a lot of buildings that are affected by dampness.Based on these observations, the researcher deems it necessary to embark on this research work within the selected community in the municipality to identify the causes and effects of dampness in buildings.The aim of this study is to identify the possible causes and effects of dampness in buildings and its remedial measures for the selected community within the New Juaben Municipality.
The objectives of the study are to determine the causes of dampness during and after the construction of buildings, determine the effects of dampness on the building and its occupants, and offer recommendations on the abovementioned issues.Most buildings are affected by dampness due to improper implementations and the elimination of some building materials during construction.Damp building can be unhealthy and costly to remedy, so knowing about the causes, can help reduce the worry and expenses.Most dampness problems can be cured or minimized by simple remedial work.
The study is limited to rising damp which is the most common type of dampness associated with buildings as far as our climate is concerned.The studies will be conducted within Mile 50 in the New Juaben Municipality.Most buildings in the Municipality are designed and constructed by Masons without the assistance of an Architect or Engineer.Dampproof courses are not used during construction either in waterlog areas or not.Building owners are not concerned about the treatment of their buildings which are affected by dampness.

Literature review
Dampness is any visible, measurable, or perceived outcome of excess moisture that causes problems in buildings, such as mold, leaks or material degradation, mold odour or direct measured excess moisture (in terms of relative humidity or moisture content) or microbial growth [1,2,3].
According to [4], [5], and [6], a guide to the approach for a damp survey in buildings is very important, and it is, therefore, essential to ensure that a full investigation is always undertaken to know the current condition of the building.If any other sources are identified, then these must be first eliminated before a proper assessment of any rising dampness is made as it can be very difficult to distinguish between two or more interfering sources of water ingress.It is essential to take great care to ensure that the evidence of dampness is correctly evaluated.
Building dampness problems arise from a range of sources including, but not limited to water leakage through roofs and walls, spouts, plumbing systems leaks, groundwater entry, damp construction materials, high indoor rates of moisture generation, entry of humid outdoor air coupled with insufficient dehumidification, water vapor condensation on cold surfaces of windows, walls and floors.
According to [5,7,8], buildings can become damp through numerous mechanisms including the following:  Rainwater may enter a building through leaks in roofing systems and building envelopes during normal weather or severe storms.The heating of wet building envelope material by the sun can also drive moisture through these materials and into adjacent building materials and spaces. Water may leak into buildings from building plumbing systems, either potable water supplies or drains and sewer piping. Moisture in the soil may enter through a building foundation (e.g.slab floor, basement floor, or walls).When the soil is saturated, liquid water may flow into the building through cracks or pores by gravity or capillary action. Wet building materials, e.g.those left out in the rain before building construction, are at times used during construction.
Therefore, dampness and mold growth in buildings may be a major problem which will need attentive ways of eliminating it from our buildings to avoid damage and decay.The only way to prevent the problem from reoccurring is to identify what is causing the dampness [3].
In addition, there is sufficient evidence associated with a damp indoor environment and upper respiratory tract symptoms, cough, wheezing, and asthma symptoms in sensitized persons.There is evidence of an association between hypersensitivity pneumonitis in susceptible individuals and the presence of mould or other agents in damp indoor environments [5,9].
The rising dampness is the upward movement of moisture through walls and floors by capillary action from the ground to 900mm or more in walls, depending on the masonry type, water table level, and evaporation rate.Salt deposits generally form a horizontal tide mark below which there is discoloration.Rising dampness is a major cause of decay in masonry materials such as stones, bricks, and mortar.
Rising dampness is often caused by bridging of the damp proof course.This happens when external renders or internal plasters provide a moisture pathway around the damp-proof course.An accurate investigation of the cause and extent of the damp problem is very important.
Dampness is usually evident in the form of stained walls, blistering and peeling of paint works, and salt accumulation of up to one meter high.Rising dampness if left untreated will cause serious structural damage to the buildings, damage to timber work, which is flooring, and architraves, rusting to skirting nails, and suffering from asthma and many other breathing disorders [4][5][6][7].
Normally walls are protected against rising dampness by a damp-proof course built into the wall.Rising dampness can be prevented by one of these methods.This involves inserting a new DPC membrane of a physical nature or by chemical systems [10].

Material and Method
This section involves a systematic approach to gather, analyze, and interpret data.The aim is to comprehensively understand the origins and consequences of dampness in buildings within the specified area.The study adopted a mixed-methods research design, integrating both qualitative and descriptive approaches to data analysis.This allowed for a holistic understanding of dampness in structures, encompassing its causes, effects, and the contextual factors involved.The study developed structured questionnaires to collect quantitative data from residents, building owners, or relevant stakeholders within the Mile 50 area.The questions focus on dampness experiences, building conditions, and health impacts.The targeted population of the study was 300 based on building owners, tenants, architects, and masons within the selected community.The study selected Mile 50 in the New Juaben Municipality of Ghana as a case study.

The Research Design
The research evaluated the causes and effects of dampness in the building of Mile 50 in the New Juaben Municipality.In this study, a descriptive survey was used to gather information on rising dampness in buildings within the case study area.The descriptive survey method consists of the following major parts:

Data Collection and Response Data
Questionnaires were administered to respondents within the selected community.The responses to the questionnaire administered to the community were received from the targeted population.The responses were direct answers to the questions the researchers posed to extract some information from the group for research purposes.
A set of questionnaires would be designed and administered to building owners, tenants, architects, and masons.200 questionnaires would be given out to people.The researcher will again interview some residents, and engineers on issues that will not be adequately captured in the design of the questionnaire.This will afford the research work a great detailed explanation of specific issues raised.

Sample and Sampling Procedure
The sampling technique used for the sampling procedure was the stratified sampling method.In the stratified sampling method, the researcher divided the population into strata on the basis of well-defined characteristics.The researcher was in the field and administered the questionnaires in the community.It was assumed in this study that the views of the respondents represented the views of the whole community.

Data Analysis
The data analysis of the study involves a comprehensive examination of the collected data to unveil critical insights into the causes and effects of dampness in buildings, particularly focusing on the Mile 50 area within the New Juaben Metropolitan Assembly.This analysis aimed to provide a deeper understanding of the underlying factors leading to dampness, its extent, and the subsequent impact on the structures and the community.Two main analyses were presented in this study.
 Descriptive Analysis: This form of analysis was deployed to compute the basic statistical measures such as mean, median, standard deviation, and frequency distributions.Even though all these areas of interest were computed, the researcher presented only frequency distribution.This provides an overview of the data's central tendencies and distributions. Correlation Analysis: The analysis also explored the relationships between variables, particularly examining how environmental factors, construction materials, and building designs correlate with the occurrence and severity of dampness.

Measurement of humidity within buildings and Personal Observation
Humidity measurement within buildings is crucial for ensuring a comfortable and healthy indoor environment.Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air.Excessive or insufficient humidity levels can lead to various problems, including mold growth, discomfort, and potential health issues.Here are some methods the researcher adopted to measure humidity within buildings.Hygrometers measuring instrument was used to measure humidity.A hydrometer was used because of its ability to:  Measure humidity by assessing the cooling effect of water evaporation. Measure electrical resistance or capacitance to determine humidity. Measure the change in weight of a hygroscopic material.
Physical Observation: Personal observation is an essential aspect of assessing indoor humidity, especially when precise measurements are not available.The physical observation informed the researcher to sense and recognize signs of high or low humidity:

Physical Comfort
 High Humidity: Feeling sticky, uncomfortable, or sweaty. Low Humidity: Experiencing dry skin, dry throat, or irritation in the eyes and respiratory tract.

Condensation
 High Humidity: Condensation on windows, walls, or other surfaces. Low Humidity: Lack of condensation even at lower temperatures.

Mold and Odor
 High Humidity: Musty odors and visible mold or mildew growth. Low Humidity: Reduced mold growth and absence of musty smells.

Static Electricity
 Low Humidity: Frequent occurrences of static shocks.

Plants and Wood
 High Humidity: Healthy indoor plants and well-maintained wooden furniture. Low Humidity: Wilting plants and cracking/splitting of wooden furniture.
Combining accurate measurements using hygrometers with physical observations gave the researcher a comprehensive understanding of indoor humidity levels and helped in formulating the necessary questions for the questionnaire.Measurement and observation of humidity within the respondents' buildings to know the defect level of the rising moisture was an essential part of this study.

Results and discussion
This chapter presents and analyses the results of the responses made by respondents to questionnaires.Wherever applicable, tables and figures are provided to illustrate and support the findings.In analyzing the responses in relation to the research questions raised, frequency and percentage tables based on the Likert Scale respondents were constructed.From the age distribution table of the respondents above, out of 200 respondents who filled in and returned the questionnaires, 50 respondents representing 25% were between the ages of 20 to 35 years, 70 of them representing 35% were between the ages of 31 to 40 years, 60 of the respondents representing 30% were between the ages of 41 to 50 years and 20 of them representing 10% were between the ages of 50 years and above.The table above indicates that of the respondents who filled in and returned the questionnaires, 154 were males and 46 were females and this is translated into 77% and 23% respectively.The results show that architects who are professionals when it comes to planning and design of buildings were not sufficiently involved in the designing of the buildings in the municipality.The number of years a respondent has stayed in the building will better help come out with the causes of dampness in a building.The table above shows that respondents who have stayed in buildings from 1 to 10 years represent 2% and those who have stayed in buildings from 11 to 20 years represent 16% and from 21 years and above represent 82%.To find out the respondents who are experiencing dampness problems in their buildings, 152 responses representing 76% of the respondents have dampness problems in their building, 26 responses representing 13% did not have any problem with dampness in their building, 14 responses representing 7% do not know about dampness problems and 8 responses representing 4% responded No comment.

Causes of dampness in buildings
It is absolutely clear from the results that dampness is a major challenge in the municipality.The possible causes of dampness in buildings according to the responses of the respondents shows that out of 200 responses, 50 of them representing 25% indicate that poor construction is the cause of dampness in buildings, 20 responses representing 10% alluded to the fact that defective design is the cause of dampness problem in buildings, 60 of the respondents believe that poor quality use of construction materials is the cause of dampness in buildings and 70 of them responded that the cause of dampness in building is as a result of poor drain ability of the soil.
It can be concluded from the outcome of the questionnaires and the researcher's own observation that; the cause of dampness has to do with the lack of involvement of professionals in the construction industry by the municipality.The effects of dampness in buildings according to the respondents, 30 out of 200 representing 15% responded that dampness causes the corrosion of metals in buildings, 50 respondents representing 25% indicated that dampness causes weakness of plaster to occur, 70 of them representing 35% responded that dampness causes peeling of paint and 50 of the respondents representing 25% said weakness of structure is caused by the action of dampness in buildings.The results showed that the weakness of plaster and peeling of paints are the major problems caused by dampness.With regards to the effects of dampness on occupants of the buildings, 110 out of 200 responses representing 55% experience discomfort, 66 of the respondents representing 33% show the cost of treatment of dampness problems and 24 of the respondents representing 12% complain of health effects.
The responses indicate that the major effects of dampness are the discomfort it brings to occupants followed by the cost of treatment of these defects caused by dampness.This table shows that 3% of the respondents have knowledge about the uses of the damp proof course (DPC), 81% of the respondents have no knowledge of the uses of damp proof course (DPC), 10% said they do not know and 6% responded no comment.
The outcome of the results shows that respondents have no knowledge of the use of damp-proof courses to prevent rising dampness hence is the responsibility of the professionals in the building industry to incorporate these materials into buildings during construction to prevent dampness.This table shows that 4% of the respondents are aware of the use of DPC during the construction of their building, 82% of the respondents are not aware of the use of DPC during the construction of their building, 12% said they do not know and 2% responded no comment.
The results show that respondents were not aware of the use of DPC in the construction of their buildings.The results show that replastering is the most common construction technique used to prevent the effects of dampness in buildings but the most effective way to prevent dampness is by introducing a damp proof course (DPC) during the construction process to counteract any effect of dampness.As agreed by [2,3,4], replastering and applying the appropriate chemicals prevents dampness.

Conclusion
Considering the nature of the effects of dampness on buildings today, this research was designed to study the causes and effects of dampness in buildings in the New Juaben Municipality of the Eastern Region, the following conclusions were drawn;  The main cause of rising dampness to the base of walls is the lack of the incorporation of damp-proof courses during construction and most new buildings under construction still lack this facility of damp proof courses. Masons are mostly responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of rising damp problems in buildings and the treatment method of replastering is often used.The problem reoccurs in a short time. Masons dominate in the design and supervision of buildings which has contributed to the high level of affected buildings in terms of rising dampness in the municipality,  Masons and building owners are unaware of using damp-proof courses in buildings. The effects of rising dampness lead to plaster work, crumbling of masonry, peeling of paintwork, efflorescence on wall surfaces, uncomfortable, unattractive room, and cost of painting yearly.

Recommendations
On the basis of the above findings, the following recommendations were made;  All new construction should comply with national building regulations. Dampproof courses (DPCs) should be placed through the full thickness of the base of walls below floor level to form an impervious layer that keeps rising damp out of buildings. Specialists in dampness treatment should be called upon to introduce new DPCs into already affected buildings in the municipality to stop the effects of dampness. Improve site drainage and landscaping to deflect rainwater and underground water away from the building, particularly the walls. Proper design, construction, and maintenance of homes to prevent building components and furnishings from becoming unusually damp. Damp problems must be solved in order to ensure a long-lasting paint and coating finish. Buildings should be designed, operated, and maintained to prevent water intrusion.When water intrusion is discovered; the source should be identified and eliminated as soon as practicable to reduce the possibility of problematic building materials degradation. Good building practices, which independent contractors and consultants in the building industry should promote in the interest of sound building. Education about the use of damp proofing should be introduced; building owners should have knowledge of damp proofing materials and their provision as part of their responsibilities.

Disclosure of conflict of interest
No conflict of interest to be disclosed.

Statement of informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Data Collection and Response data  Sample and sampling procedure  Data collection tool (instrument used) o Visual assessment of conditions around and within building ventilation within buildings.o Measurement of humidity within buildings and personal observations.

Table 1
Age distribution of respondents Source: Field Data, January, 2020

Table 2
Gender distribution of respondents

Table 3
Design of the buildingConcerning the design of the building, when it comes to the causes of dampness in buildings, 300 out of 200 responses shows that 50 of the respondents representing 25% of the respondents' building was designed by building owners, 26 of them representing 13% by tenants, 8 of the respondents representing 4% were designed by architects and 116 of them representing 58% by masons respectively.

Table 4
Number of years respondents have lived in buildings

Table 5
Dampness problem in buildings

Table 6
Possible causes of dampness in buildings Source: Field Data, January 2023

Table 7
Effects of dampness in buildings

Table 8
Effects of dampness on occupants

Table 9
Treatment of dampness problems in buildingsThis table shows that 146 representing 73% of the respondents have treated a dampness problem before, 28 representing 14% of the respondents have not treated a dampness problem, 16 respondents representing 8% responded Do not know and 10 representing 5% responded to Know comment.The results indicate the magnitude of the problem of dampness being treated by those responsible for the affected buildings.

Table 10
Respondent's knowledge of the uses of damp proof course (DPC) in buildings

Table 11
Awareness of DPC used during the construction of buildings

Table 12
Prevention of dampnessFrom the table, it shows that 10 out of 200 representing 5% use DPC to prevent dampness, 128 of the respondents representing 64% use replastering to prevent dampness, 28 of them representing 14% use tiles, and 34 of the respondents representing 17% use oil paint.