Green nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors for monitoring pharmaceutical residues and heavy metals in water: A comprehensive review of analytical design, validation, and sustainability
1 Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Kirkuk, Kirkuk, Iraq.
2 Department of Chemistry, College of Education for Pure Sciences, University of Kirkuk, Kirkuk, Iraq.
Review
Open Access Research Journal of Chemistry and Pharmacy, 2026, 09(01), 005–019.
Article DOI: 10.53022/oarjcp.2026.9.1.0021
Publication history:
Received on 31 May 2026; revised on 14 July 2026; accepted on 16 July 2026
Abstract:
Rapid monitoring of pharmaceutical residues and heavy metals in water requires analytical methods that combine sensitivity, selectivity, portability, low cost, and reduced environmental burden. Conventional centralized techniques such as ICP-MS, AAS, HPLC, and LC-MS/MS remain essential reference approaches for confirmatory analysis, but their infrastructure demand and sample-preparation requirements limit routine field deployment. This comprehensive narrative review synthesizes a working set of core peer-reviewed articles and guidance documents selected from 2012-2026, together with earlier foundational references in electrochemistry, green chemistry, and detection-limit terminology. The review focuses on nanomaterial-modified screen-printed electrodes and related electrochemical platforms for aqueous matrices. Carbon nanomaterials, noble and non-noble metal nanoparticles, metal oxides, MOFs, COFs, molecularly imprinted polymers, aptamers, and renewable biopolymers are compared according to their roles in conductivity, adsorption, catalysis, selectivity, antifouling performance, and sustainability. Heavy metals are mainly addressed through anodic stripping voltammetry and related pulse techniques, whereas pharmaceutical residues are commonly monitored using differential pulse voltammetry, square-wave voltammetry, amperometry, or impedimetric sensing. The manuscript also explains how pharmaceutical validation principles such as ICH Q2(R2) and ICH Q14 can be adapted to environmental sensors through a fit-for-purpose target profile, matrix-matched validation, real-sample recovery, robustness testing, and comparison with reference methods. Numerical examples for LOD calculation and Analytical Eco-Scale scoring are included to improve reproducibility and green-chemistry transparency. The major remaining challenges include dissolved oxygen effects, matrix fouling, electrode batch variability, volatile organic contaminants, nanomaterial disposal, and insufficient reporting of raw calibration data. All figures are original three-dimensional schematic illustrations prepared to clarify analytical workflows, electrode architecture, optimization, platform comparison, and practical method development.
Keywords:
Green Analytical Chemistry; Screen-Printed Electrodes; Electrochemical Sensors; Nanomaterials; Pharmaceutical Residues; Heavy Metals; Water Analysis; Validation; Eco-Scale; Vancouver References.
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